most venomous snakes in the world

Vipers

Vipers are a large family of snakes; the scientific name is Viperidae. They are found all over the world, with the exceptions of Antarctica, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, north of the Arctic Circle and island clusters such as Hawaii.

The family Viperidae includes adders, pit vipers (like rattlesnakes, cottonmouths and copperheads), the Gaboon viper, green vipers and horned vipers.

All vipers are venomous and have long, hinged fangs. "Generally more venomous vipers are in tropical areas, particularly South America and Africa," said Alan Savitzky, a professor of biological sciences at Utah State University specializing in the biology of snakes. Vipers found in colder, northern climates, such as the black or European adder have more moderate venom.

Physical characteristics

Vipers range widely in size, though are generally stocky with short tails. One of the world’s smallest vipers is the Mao-Lan pit viper (Protobothrops maolanensis), which was discovered in China in 2011. They are less than 2 feet (61 centimeters) long, according to National Geographic. The longest viper — and the longest venomous snake in the Americas — is the South American Bushmaster (Lachesis muta), which grows to more than 11 feet (335 cm), according to the University of Michigan’s Animal Diversity Web (ADW).

Almost all vipers have a distinctive triangular head, according to Discover magazine. This head shape is due to the placement of their large venom glands in the mouth. Some nonvenomous species have evolved a similarly shaped head in order to potentially trick predators into thinking they are vipers. Additionally, most vipers have keeled scales, vertically elliptical pupils and coloring and patterns that serve as camouflage.

Fangs

Vipers are known for their extreme fangs, which are long, hollow, hinged and rotatable, according to an article in the journal Physiological and Biochemical Zoology. These fangs connect to venom glands located behind the eyes at the back upper part of the jaw. Venom travels down through the follow teeth to be injected into prey as the viper bites.

Vipers can rotate their fangs together or independently, which allows them to wait until the last second to erect their fangs. Their mouths can open nearly 180 degrees so the ability to rotate their fangs within that space is an advantage. When not in use, vipers’ hinged fangs fold up and lie against the roof of the snake’s mouth. This allows their fangs to grow relatively long, according to Andrew Solway, author of "Deadly Snakes" (Heinemann-Raintree, 2005).

Vipers can extend their fangs and bite without injecting venom. This is known as a dry bite and is common in human snakebites. Dry bites enable vipers to conserve their previous venom, which can run out and takes a while to replenish, according to an article in the journal Tropical and Geographical Medicine.

Habitat

Vipers' habitats vary across their nearly worldwide range. They live in mountains, rainforests, fields and deserts.

Behavioral, hunting and feeding habits

Generally, vipers are nocturnal. They often appear sluggish compared to other snakes, according to Nicolae Sfetcu, author of "Reptiles: Crocodiles, Alligators, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles" (Lulu Press, 2011). This is because many vipers rely on their camouflage for protection rather than their ability to move quickly. They are more inclined to blend in with the surrounding brush, rocks or ground cover when being approached by a predator than to slither away.

Nevertheless, vipers have a speedy strike. For example, Africa's puff adder can strike at a speed of a quarter of a second, according to Perry's Bridge Reptile Park in South Africa.

Their perceived sluggishness impacts their hunting tactics. "Most vipers are ambush predators," said Savitzky. "They detect where prey is most likely to be chemically and just wait. Because they're not expending a lot of energy, low resting metabolic rate, and eat large things, they can afford to do that."

Vipers eat a variety of food depending on the size of the snake. Prey includes small mammals, birds, lizards and eggs, according to Savitzky. When their prey is dead, they swallow it whole.

Vipers engage in a hunting activity called prey relocation, according to an article in BMC Biology journal. This means that once they have identified their prey, they strike it and inject venom. They then immediately release the prey so that it cannot bite back. The bitten prey wanders off, dies and the viper uses its sense of smell to find it.

Bite

The severity of a viper bite depends on the species and if it was a wet or dry bite, which contains no venom. Savitzky pointed out that European vipers (adders) have relatively moderate venom that is not highly lethal, while Gaboon vipers, which are found in sub-Saharan Africa, have highly potent venom.

"Vipers in general tend to have enzymetic venom that affects general tissues," Savitzky said. It causes intense swelling, pain and necrosis, which is cell death and decay. It also functions as an anticoagulant. Death usually occurs from a dramatic collapse in blood pressure. All viper bites should be treated seriously and medical attention should be paid.

In addition to killing prey and injuring predators, viper venom helps vipers digest their food, according to Sfetcu. Since they swallow their prey whole, digesting it is a big job not helped by vipers' generally inefficient digestive systems. The venom breaks down lipids, acids and proteins in the prey during the digestive process.

Reproduction

Most vipers are ovoviviparous, Savitzky said. That means the eggs are fertilized and incubate inside the mother and she gives birth to live young. "But," he added, "That is not true of some basal Asian pit vipers. And all New World pit vipers but one have live birth. That one is the Bushmaster viper and it has re-evolved egg laying."

Vipers' mating season, activities and egg incubation time depends on the species.

Taxonomy/classification

According to the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS), there are more than 200 species of viper. The taxonomy of vipers is:

Kingdom: Animalia

Subkingdom: Bilateria

Infrakingdom: Deuterostomia

Phylum: Chordata

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Infraphylum: Gnathostomata

Superclass: Tetrapoda

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Suborder: Serpentes

Infraorder: Alethinophidia

Family: Viperidae

Subfamilies:

Azemiopinae (1 genus — Azemiops)

Causinae (1 genus — Causus)

Crotalinae (pit vipers; 18 genera)

Viperinae (12 genera)

Types of vipers

The following are descriptions of some particularly fascinating vipers.

Gaboon viper

(Bitis gabonica)

Gaboon vipers are the largest vipers in the world, reaching lengths of up to 7 feet (213 cm) and more than 22 lbs. (10 kilograms), according to the ADW. Females are significantly longer than males. Though the South American Bushmaster is longer, the Gaboon viper is heavier. Savitzky noted that Gaboon vipers are of the adder lineage, so referring to them as Gaboon adders is also correct. They live throughout sub-Saharan Africa in rainforests and other tropical areas. They spend most of their time lying in wait among leaf litter.

Gaboon vipers' real claims to fame are their extraordinary long fangs — the longest of any snake, said Savitzky. Gaboon vipers' fangs can be up to 2 inches (5 cm) long. They also have potent venom. They mostly eat small mammals, birds and amphibians, but have been recorded eating small antelopes and giant rats, according to the ADW.

Pit vipers

Pit vipers are a subfamily (Crotalinae) of vipers. There are about 190 species, according to ITIS. Pit vipers are found throughout the Americas, Europe and Asia. All vipers in the Americas are pit vipers, according to The University of Pittsburgh. "Pit vipers apparently have their basal species in Asia and then a lot of radiation in the New World," said Savitzky.

"They are all distinguished by the presence of the pit organ on either side of the face," he continued. "These are infrared receptors. They detect heat energy. Pit vipers see the world in a combination of heat and light. The receptors detect warm blooded prey but also can detect cold blooded prey, though they're more responsive to warm."

Some species of pit vipers include rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, copperheads, lanceheads and bushmasters.

Green vipers

Several types of snakes are referred to as green vipers due to their coloring. They include the Chinese green viper (Trimeresurus stejnegeri), the green night adder (Causus resimus), the Great Lakes bush viper (Atheris nitschei) and the newly discovered ruby-eyed green pit viper (Cryptelytrops rubeus). These are all Old World snakes, found in Africa and Asia.

Probably the most famous of the green vipers is Trimeresurus albolabris, also called green pit viper or white-lipped viper. They are found in Southeast Asia, India and southern China, according to The University of Adelaide's Clinical Toxinology Resources. These vibrant vipers are a bright Kelly green and have vivid yellow eyes. Their jaws are white or yellow, presumably giving rise to their white-lipped name. Males have a narrow white stripe running down the sides of their bodies.

Like other pit vipers, copperhead snakes give birth to live young.

Credit: Matt Jeppson / Shutterstock.com

Horned vipers

Several types of snakes are referred to as horned vipers due to the presence of horn-shaped scales on their faces. They include the Saharan horned viper or desert horned viper (Cerastes cerastes), the Arabian horned viper or Middle Eastern horned viper (Cerastes gasperettii), the horned puff adder (Bitis caudalis) and the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes), which has a horn at the top of its nose. The other species have a horn over each eye.

All horned vipers live in Africa and the Middle East but the nose-horned viper, which are found in Europe and Asia. A new species, named Matilda's horned viper (Atheris matildae) was discovered in Tanzania in 2012. [Photos: Vivid Images of New Snake Species]

The horns are made of single or multiple scales, depending on the species, according to the ADW. Not all horned vipers have horns; sometimes the same clutch of eggs will yield animals with and without horns. The horns can bend back to be flat against the head, which is useful when the snake is going down a burrow.

The purpose of horns is uncertain. Some scientists speculate that horns break up the outline of the animal, making it more difficult for predators to see. Others speculate that the horns may help protect the snake's eyes from sand in some way. This would explain why snakes with horns over their eyes are found in deserts.

Eyelash pit viper

(Bothriechis schlegelii)

Called both the eyelash pit viper and eyelash palm pit viper, these small snakes are found in Central America and northern South America. They are named for the bristly scales above their eyes, which resemble eyelashes or hoods. They are also distinguishable by their bright coloration and appear in vibrant yellows or greens (the most common coloration), pinks, purples, silver, dark gray or brown, according to the ADW. Their coloring is camouflage and allows them to blend in with banana bunches or flowers.

They average around 2 feet (61 cm) in length and are one of the smallest poisonous snakes in their range. They are largely arboreal.

The purpose of the eyelashes is unknown, according to the ADW. Some scientists have suggested they protect the vipers' eyes as they move through thick vegetation.

Endangerment status

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 57 species of viper are considered near threatened, conservation-dependent, vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered, extinct or extinct in the wild. Some of the rarest vipers are the golden lancehead (Bothrops insularis), which is found only on a small island off the coast of Brazil, and the Santa Catalina rattlesnake, which is found only on Santa Catalina Island in the Gulf of California in Mexico. According to IUCN, this snake has declined principally due to overcollecting.

Additional resources

ITIS: Viperidae

BBC Nature: Vipers

National Geographic: New Pit Viper Found — One of World's Smallest

Author Bio

Jessie Szalay

Jessie Szalay, Live Science Contributor

Jessie Szalay is a contributing writer for Live Science. She covers animals, health and other general science topics. Her work has appeared in the Jewish Daily Forward, National Geographic Traveler — Intelligent Travel, Killing the Buddha, Waccamaw Journal and elsewhere. Jessie is finishing her master's degree in nonfiction writing at George Mason University and holds a bachelor of arts degree from Kenyon College. She lives in Washington, D.C., and is working on a book about the sociological and psychological practice of othering.

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Golden lancehead

The Golden lancehead (Bothrops insularis) is a highly venomous pit viper species endemic to the Queimada Grande island or as it's known in colloquial English "Snake Island".

The island is located about 40 miles off the coast of Sao Paulo state, in Brazil and it's size is roughly around 110 acres.

Golden lancehead - Bothrops insularis

It's also uninhabited and travel to the island is forbidden by the Brazilian navy, and there is a good reason, it is home to hundreds of thousands of venomous golden lancehead snakes.

The island is a subtropical or tropical moist forest containing several different types of habitats including forest, clearings, and shrubs. The climate is very mild, and the temperatures never fall below 64ºF (18ºC), or over 72ºF (22ºC).

They can usually be found seeking shelter among leaf litter or in rock crevices, especially during unfavorable weather or after having just ingested a prey. But are also found in the trees hunting for prey. The golden lancehead grows to an average length of 28 inches (70 cm) but it's known to reach 46 inches (118 cm) in maximum length.

The snake's color pattern consists of a series of triangular or quadrangular blotches, that may be broader or narrow, and alternating or opposite along the back overlaid in a pale yellowish brown ground color. The golden lancehead belly is a uniform pale cream or yellow, and they lack a well-defined postorbital stripe. When in captivity, their yellowish color often becomes darker

Golden lancehead

Their common name "lancehead" refers to the distinctive head shape of all Bothrops genus snakes, which is elongated and comes to a point at the nose.

The golden lancehead has a longer tail than the Jararaca, its closest relative, which probably an adaptation to help them maneuver through the trees found in the island.

Venom / Bite

These are highly venomous snakes but since the golden lancehead only inhabits an area uninhabited by humans, there has never been a recorded bite by one.

But other lancehead species are responsible for more human deaths than any other snakes in both North and South America.

The chemical analysis of their venom suggests that it's 5 times more potent than that of their cousin the jararaca, and is also the fastest acting venom in their genus. The mortality rate for other lancehead species envenomations is around 7%, if the victim doesn't receive medical treatment, but even if the patient receives treatment the bite is fatal on 3% of the cases.

The effects of lancehead venom include local pain and swelling, nausea and vomiting, blood blisters, bruising, blood in the vomit and urine, intestinal bleeding, kidney failure, brain hemorrhage and severe necrosis of muscular tissue.

Lancehead snakes have an hemotoxic venom that eats away at flesh and tissue to help digest the prey before they swallow it, but the golden lancehead also has some neurotoxic components in their venom to help killing the prey.

Diet / Feeding

Their diet consists mostly of perching birds, but they have been reported to eat lizards or even resort to cannibalism. The golden lancehead newborn and juvenile snakes prey mainly upon invertebrates. Because there are no mammals native to the island Queimada Grande, this has undoubtedly had a profound impact on their evolution.

Reproduction

The golden lancehead mating season occurs during August and September, and these vipers are known to mate using both the ground or trees. Like most other viper species, the golden lancehead gives birth to live young.

The average litter size around 7 newborns, and there is no recorded data about their size at birth, but one would expect it be similar to that of the Jararaca (about 10 inches).

Conservation / Threats

In the IUCN Red List the golden lance head is classified as critically endangered, this is due to several factors, but the main threat to the species is the habitat destruction. In the past, fires were deliberately started on the island in an attempt to eradicate the snakes so it could be used for agriculture.

To maintain the lighthouse on the island, the Brazilian Navy has also contributed to habitat destruction by the removal of vegetation. The species was also plagued by over harvesting from scientists.

The island of Queimada Grande is the only place in which these snakes are found in the wild, but it can only support a limited snake population due to its small size of only 43 hectares.

This also leads to a large amount of inbreeding within the golden lancehead population and the occurrence of "intersexes" (specimens born with both male and female reproductive parts) this is harmful because most of the intersexes are born sterile.

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Bothrops asper Terciopelo

Geographic Range

The range of Bothrops asper includes the northwestern coast of South America from Ecuador to Venezuela, Trinidad, and north as far as Mexico. More specifically, in Mexico and Central America Bothrops asper is found north to the Southern Tamaulipas and south to the Southeastern Yucatan Peninsula. It dwells in the lowland Atlantic coastal areas of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. Terciopelos (Bothrops asper) are also found in the northern areas of both Guatamala and Honduras. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; O'Shea, 2005; Sasa, et al., 2009)

In South America these vipers are typically found west and north of the Andes, though there are exceptions, most notably in Venezuela where it can be found in the San Cristobal and Barquiseto Depressions in the Southeast region of the country. Bothrops asper is found on the Pacfic coastal plains and Andes Pacific versant from Columbia to as far south as the border of Peru and Ecuador. These snakes are also found in Northern Peru near the Pacific coast. In Columbia their range extends from the Pacific to the Carribean coastal plain as well as deeper within the country in the valleys of the Andes. Bothrops asper lives in sympatry with Bothrops atrox in central northern Columbia and certain areas of Venezuela. Bothrops atrox typically ranges further south in the Amazonian countries, but due to its similar appearance and overlapping distribution of Bothrops asper the snakes are often mistaken for one another. To further confusion, Bothrops asper was once considered a subspecies of B. atrox. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009)

Biogeographic Regions neotropical native

Habitat

Bothrops asper is primarily found in the tropical rainforest, the tropical evergreen forest, and the outer edge of savannas, but has also been found in a wide variety of other habitats including lowland and lower mountainous regions, dry regions of some tropical deciduous forests, and the cloud forests of Mexico. Bothrops asper prefers higher levels of humidity but adults may be found in desert areas as they are at less risk for dehydration than their juvenile counterparts. In Ecuador, Terciopelos inhabit the low montane wet and dry forests as well as the coastal cloud forests. Bothrops asper is known to move in to newly cleared agricultural land areas in many countries as well as the forested uplands in Trinidad. These vipers are mainly terrestrial, but some juveniles are known to climb trees. They have been documented at elevations from sea level to 2,640 m above sea level. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Cisneros-Heredia and Touzet, 2004; O'Shea, 2005)

Habitat Regions tropical terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes desert or dune savanna or grassland forest scrub forest mountains

Aquatic Biomes coastal

Other Habitat Features agricultural

Range elevation

Sea Level to 2640 m

to 8661.42 ft

Physical Description

Members of the genus Bothrops are distinguished by their broad, flattened heads which are set apart from the rest of the body. Their eye lids (canthus) are very distinct. In drier regions, terciopelos have more scales to prevent water loss. Bothrops asper varies greatly phenotypically across its geographic range. This has led to the confusion between it and other species, most notably Bothrops atrox, which is similar in color but often contains yellow or rust like tones and rectangular or trapezoidal blotches. The head of Bothrops asper is medium to dark brown or even black. It may have occipital botches or streaks that range from indistinct to distinct, but usually are absent. The underside is most often pale yellow. Individuals may weigh up to 6 kg and typically measure 1.2 to 1.8 m in length. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; O'Shea, 2005; Saldarriaga-Córdoba, et al., 2009; United States Navy, 1962)

Like most other Bothrops, B. asper has different patterns and colors on its dorsal and ventral sides and also exhibits a postorbital stripe. The ventral side is yellow, cream, or a whitish gray, with dark blotches (mottling) that increases in frequency towards the posterior end. Ventrolaterally, the viper has alternating dark gray scales which are paler towards the medial line. Dorsally, the viper is olive, gray, brown, grayish brown, tan or at times nearly black. It has dark triangles with pale edges laterally, which range in number from 18 to 25. Apices either alternate or are reflective of each other over the middorsal line. In the interspaces, there are dark, paravertebral blotches. An individual may have a yellow zig-zag shaped line on each side of the body. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004)

Terciopelos exhibit great sexual dimorphism. From birth, males are notably smaller in size than females. Females have thick, heavy bodies and can reach up to 10 times the size of males. Males have 161 to 216 ventral scales and 57 to 81 subcaudals. Females have 187 to 240 ventrals and 46 to 70 subcaudals. Juvenile females have a brown tail tip while males have a yellow tail tip. Prior to sexual maturation, males completely lose their yellow tip. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009)

Other Physical Features heterothermic venomous

Sexual Dimorphism female larger sexes colored or patterned differently

Range mass

6 (high) kg

13.22 (high) lb

Range length

2.5 (high) m

8.20 (high) ft

Average length

1.2 to 1.8 m

Development

Bothrops asper is viviparous, making development to the neonatal/juvenile state internal. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009; Solórzano and Cerdas, 1989)

Reproduction

Unlike many vipers, there are no documented cases of male-male combat in Bothrops asper. Often females will mate with more than one male in a mating season. Mating includes a series of movements of the male who then slowly chases an accepting female. He often bobs his head at her side. The female then stops movement and extends her posture to mate. It is not known whether this species exhibits annual or biennial reproduction. (Sasa, et al., 2009; Solórzano and Cerdas, 1989)

Mating System polyandrous

Bothrops asper is considered the most prolific snake in all of the Americas. It breeds seasonally, usually during the rainy season when food is readily available. Males are known to follow females during the mating season in some regions. Fertilization is internal. Because terciopelos have a large geographic range, the time and length of reproduction varies greatly. For instance, in the Atlantic population of Costa Rica, B. asper mates in March, but in the Pacific region, it mates from September to November. This variation continues throughout Central and South America. There is a positive correlation between the body size of the female parent and the number of offspring she produces. After a gestation period of 6 to 8 months, females give birth to 5 to 86 viviparous young. These young terciopelos weigh between 6.1 and 20.2 grams each. There is also some evidence of long term sperm storage by the females to delay fertilization. Females are 110 to 120 cm at sexual maturity, while males average at 99.5 cm. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009; Solórzano and Cerdas, 1989)

Key Reproductive Features iteroparous seasonal breeding sexual viviparous sperm-storing delayed fertilization

Breeding interval

Bothrops asper breads once yearly.

Breeding season

Breeding season for Bothrops asper varies. Some populations are known to mate in March, and give birth in September-November. Others mate from September to November and parturition occurs from April to June.

Range number of offspring

5 to 86

Range gestation period

6 to 8 months

Females build up fat stores which lead to a release in hormones that stimulate ovulation. Females gestate for 6 to 8 months before giving birth to live young. There is no parental care.

Parental Investment pre-fertilization provisioning protecting female pre-hatching/birth provisioning female protecting female

Lifespan/Longevity

Recapture of the species is uncommon, so longevity in the wild is unknown. However, it is estimated that lifespan in the wild is similar to that in captivity, which ranges from 15 to 21 years based on zoo-keeping records. (Bowler, 1977; Sasa, et al., 2009)

Range lifespan

Status: captivity

15 to 21 years

Behavior

Like much of Bothrops, B. asper is a nocturnal, solitary species. Activity varies seasonally, with B. asper becoming less active in colder and dryer months. Terciopelos are most often found near river and stream banks, basking in the sun during the day and under forest cover ready to ambush during the night. The viper also exhibits an S-coiled defense display when threatened by another species. Juveniles are known to climb trees and also to exhibit caudal luring, a use of their different colored tail tips to lure prey. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009)

Key Behaviors terricolous nocturnal sedentary solitary

Range territory size

59,500 (high) m^2

Average territory size

37,100 m^2

Home Range

Because B. asper is highly sedentary, ambushing to capture prey, the viper usually does not stray more than 1200 m over a two-night period and maintains a much smaller activity center than its home range. Terciopelos only leave this activity center in the absence of food or sufficient humidity. They have an estimated territory range of 37,100 m. (Sasa, et al., 2009)

Communication and Perception

Communication and perception is not well studied in Bothrops asper. However, the species is named for its loreal heat-sensing pit which it uses at night to detect prey. Males follow females to show they are interested in mating, and will exhibit head-bobbing motions if the female allows him to approach.

Like all snakes, Bothrops asper perceives its environment through visual, infrared, tactile, and chemical stimuli. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004; Sasa, et al., 2009)

Communication Channels visual

Perception Channels visual infrared/heat tactile chemical

Food Habits

Bothrops asper, due to its vast distribution, feeds on a wide variety of prey. The size, strength, and extremely toxic venom make terciopelos effective predators. In adult years, they have been known to feed on mammals, amphibians, and reptiles, but are not limited to these groups. Juveniles feed on small lizards and even large insects such as Scolopendra angulata.

In Costa Rica, adults have been known to feed on rats (Rattus rattus), opossums (Caluromys derbianus and Didelphis marsupialis), and other rodents, as well as rabbits (Sylvilagus brasiliensis), frogs (Lithobates forreri) and geckos (Gonatodes albogularis). In Ecuador they primarily feed on rodents. On the island of Trinidad, Bothrops asper has been known to feed on everything from rodents and other small mammals, lizards, frogs and birds, or even crayfish. These species include Didelphis marsupialis and Ninia atrata. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004)

Primary Diet carnivore eats terrestrial vertebrates

Animal Foods birds mammals amphibians reptiles insects aquatic crustaceans

Predation

Though well camouflaged, large, and venomous Bothrops asper has many predators, notably mussuranas (Clelia clelia). Mussuranas are snakes known to use their own venom and constrictive abilities to prey on other snakes. The blood of Clelia clelia contains an inhibitor of some the powerful toxins of the venom of terciopelos. Raptors, such as laughing falcons (Herpetotheres cacchinans), swallow-tailed kites (Elanoides forficatus), and crane hawks (Geranospiza caerulescens) are also important predators of terciopelos. The most effective are laughing falcons which can successfully defeat incredibly large female terciopelos. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004)

Those less effective predators which can only feed on small to medium-sized terciopelos include mammalian predators such as hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus leuconotus), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and coatis Nasua nasua and Nasua narica. The more susceptible juveniles are preyed upon by many smaller raptors including roadside hawks (Buteo magnirostris). Some crabs, the spider Phoneutria, and tarantulas are suspected to prey on neonates. (Sasa, et al., 2009)

Anti-predator Adaptations cryptic

Known Predators

Mussuranas (Clelia clelia)

Hognosed skunks (Conepatus leuconotus)

Coatis (Nasua nasua and Nasua narica)

Racoons (Procyon lotor)

Laughing falcons (Herpetotheres cacchinans)

Swallow-tailed kites (Elanoides forficatus)

Crane hawks (Geranospiza caerulescens)

Roadside hawks (Buteo magnirostris)

Ecosystem Roles

Bothrops asper has many parasites. Internal parasites include the nematodes Filaria, Rhabdias vellardi, Kalicephalus inermes, trematodes (Ochetosoma genus), and flatworms (Acanthocephala). Parasitic protozoans include hemogregarianes as well as amoeba and amoeba-like organisms. These have been known to cause gastroenteritis and hepatitis, among other illnesses. External parasites include several ticks, including Amblyoma savanae and Amblyoma dissimile, a known vector of hemogregarianes. (Sasa, et al., 2009)

Terciopelos serve as prey to many species, and likely play a role in supporting local populations. Mussuranas, as well as many raptors including laughing falcons (Herpetotheres cacchinans), swallow-tailed kites (Elanoides forficatus), and crane hawks (Geranospiza caerulescens) prey upon terciopelos. Predators that prey on small terciopelos include mammalian predators such as hog-nosed skunks (Conepatus leuconotus), the coatis Nasua nasua and Nasua narica and racoons (Procyon lotor). Juveniles are preyed upon by many smaller raptors including roadside hawks (Buteo magnirostris). Some crabs and tarantulas prey on neonates. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004)

Bothrops asper are also important predators in their ecosystems and thus impact local populations of prey species as well. Juveniles feed on small lizards and even large insects such as Scolopendra angulata. Adults feed on rats (Rattus rattus), opossums (Caluromys derbianus and Didelphis marsupialis), and other rodents, as well as rabbits (Sylviagus brasiliensis), frogs (Lithobates forreri) and geckos (Gonatodes albogularis). (Sasa, et al., 2009)

Commensal/Parasitic Species

Blood parasites Hepatozoa

Amoeba and amoeba like organisms

Ticks Amblyomma

Bacterium Pseudomonas

Nematodes of the superfamily Filarioidea

Trematodes Ochetosoma

Acanthocephala

Nematodes Rhabdias vellardi

Nematodes Kalicephalus inermes

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

Terciopelos feed on small rats and other seed eaters which are detrimental to farmers. The venom has potential pharmacological implications and continues to be of promise. (Sasa, et al., 2009)

Positive Impacts source of medicine or drug controls pest population

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

Bothrops asper is responsible for the most deaths by venomous snakes in most of its geographic range. Often living close to humans in lowland areas and having highly-toxic venom results in a significant impact in the areas it inhabits. Its well studied venom is hemorrhagic, myonecrotic and proteolytic. It can cause incredible pain, necrosis of the region, and progressive edema. (Campbell and Lamar, 2004)

Negative Impacts injures humans bites or stings venomous

Conservation Status

Urbanization, deforestation, contamination, and agriculture have resulted in the declining number of Bothrops asper in Ecuador. In spite of this, some are able to live and even thrive in open and suburban zones. It has been suggested that the Ecuadorian B. asper be placed as a species of "Least Concern" on the IUCN Redlist, though the species is currently not evaluated. (Cisneros-Heredia and Touzet, 2004)

In Costa Rica, human impact has seemed to favor Bothrops asper. Terciopelos have been able to prosper in certain agricultural fields such as banana, cacao and coffee. Even though they are adaptable, some areas have seen a decline which is thought to stem from more drastic environmental changes and decline of prey. (Sasa, et al., 2009)

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most venomous snakes in the world